Introduction of Sport and Exercise Psychology

Report on Hockey in Kinesiology

1.0  INTRODUCTION

Hockey is the games played with curved sticks and a ball can be found in the histories of many cultures. In Egypt, 4000-year-old carvings feature teams with sticks and a projectile, hurling dates to before 1272 BC in Ireland, and there is a depiction from approximately 600 BC in Ancient Greece, where it was played with a horn or horn-like stick . In Inner Mongolia, the Daur people have been playing hockey, a game similar to modern field hockey, for about 1,000 years.

Most evidence of hockey-like games during the middle Ages is found in legislation concerning sports and games. The Galway Statute enacted in Ireland in 1527 banned certain types of ball games, including games using "hooked" written "hockie", similar to "hooky “sticks.

By the 19th century, the various forms and divisions of historic games began to differentiate and coalesce into the individual sports defined today. Organizations dedicated to the codification of rules and regulations began to form, and national and international bodies sprang up to manage domestic and international competition.

Hockey is type of grouping sport that need a number of member player. Usually number of 11 player that will play in the court. Hockey have their own specific rules and regulation. The rules and regulation are used in the all world by using international rules. Hockey have specific equipment like hockey stick, ball, shoulder pads and protective cup.

There are many type of hockey like Field hockey, Ice hockey, Roller hockey (inline), Roller hockey (quad), Sledge hockey, Street hockey. Even there are different but the use the same principle of kinesiology to play the hockey.

2.0 DISCUSSION

            2.1 NATURE OF THE GAME

A field hockey match consists of two halves, usually 35 minutes each, and begins with a pass back a non-defended pass from one teammate to another at mid-field. There are 11 players to a side, one of whom is a goalkeeper. The object of the game is to score more goals than the opposition.

 The ball are made of solid plastic, weighing between 5 1/2 ounces and 5 3/4 ounces with a circumference of 8 13/16 inches to 9 1/4 inches.

The goals are counted when the ball crosses the goal line between the goal posts after being touched by the stick of an attacker within the circle. Each goal is worth one point. The ball can only be touched with the flat side of the curved, hardwood stick. 

Unique to field hockey is the obstruction rule. In virtually every other sport, shielding the ball with one's body is an integral part of game strategy. However, this is not allowed in field hockey. All players have an equal chance to gain control of the ball as it is dribbled or passed down the field. Mostly technic were use during playing hockey are shooting, passing and blocking.

Other infractions include advancing other than the goalkeeper, no player may play the ball with any part of the body, dangerous use of the stick and hitting the ball in a manner that could lead to dangerous play. For a breach of rules, an umpire may award a free hit, penalty corner or penalty stroke. A majority of scoring opportunities in each match comes from penalty corners. 

The pitch is 100 yards long and 60 yards wide (91.40m x 55.0m) divided by a centre line and a 25-yard line on each side of the field. A striking circle is marked 16 yards (14.63m) out from each goal post. All international matches are played on watered down artificial turf. Goal cages are 7 feet (2.14m) high, 12 feet (3.66m) wide and 4 feet (1.22m) deep. Boards on the back and side of the cages are 18 inches high.

The extra time or time during play the hockey, in classification rounds or games that require a winner to advance to the next round, if the score is tied after regulation, extra time of two, 7 1/2 minute periods is played. The game is ended when one team scores a goal. If the score remains tied after overtime, penalty strokes may be used to determine the winner. In penalty stroke competition, each team selects five players to take alternating penalty strokes against the opposing goalkeeper.

For fouls a player may not Shield or obstruct the ball from an opponent with the body or stick. All players must have an equal chance to gain control of the ball as it is dribbled or passed down the field or play the ball with the rounded side of the stick or interfere in the game without a stick and charge, hit, shove or trip an opponent.

2.2 MOTOR SKILL PERFORMANCES

What key of motor skill performance in hockey?

1. Pass and receive on the move

The focus is on team possession and elimination skills with more than one attacker. This would include situations such as 2 vs 1 with numerical advantages and as well as ball possession. Training athletes to keep ball possession and not for the sole purpose attacking. The movement among the player needs to be trained in all directions.

2. Ball control

The focus is on individual possession and elimination skills. Ball possession is a key skill and the athlete must feel confident to hold the ball and keep possession when under pressure before creating an outlet pass. Athlete must also be trained to eliminate a defender in a 1 vs 1 scenario to attack and create scoring opportunities.

3. Goal scoring

Scoring goal is not easy. Athletes must trained to put the ball in the net under a variety of conditions. Players will learn to release the ball under pressure, in tight spaces and from a range of angels in the circle.

4. Individual defence

Players must be able to channel an attacker player away from dangerous areas on the field. They must also be able to intercept passes and dispossess attacking players of the ball. Individual defence require good footwork and decision making.

5. Team defence

For a team to be successful in preventing their opponents from scoring they must work as unit to defence. Players must understand when situation will allow for double-teaming on the ball to create turnovers. Athletes will need to learn to play man-to-man marking the zone coverage when defending.

2.3 ROLES OF BIOMECHANICS

·         Biomechanical analysis of the penalty corner drag flick of elite male and female hockey players.Biomechanics is the study of the mechanics of life forms – in this case, the human athlete. Over the last few decades, biomechanics has concentrated on the role of forces within the athletic body and their influence on performance. Typical investigations may have centred on how a hammer thrower releases the hammer. More recently, there has been a move towards sports biomechanics.

Field hockey is one of the famous game played in more than 127 countries all over the world. Hockey is a dynamic game played by both sexes requiring high level of skills, excellent conditioning and well-co-ordinated team effort. Penalty corner is awarded for foul committed by the defending team in its own entire 23 meters area. Penalty corner is awarded to the attacking by the umpire depending upon the nature of foul committed at the time of the game. The penalty corner will offer more scoring opportunity because during penalty corner only five defenders will be permitted within the circle but all the attackers are permitted.

The penalty corner is one of the most important scoring plays in field hockey. The drag-flick is used for shooting at goal with speed and precision as it is more effective than other techniques such as hits and pushes when playing a penalty corner. According to the rules of hockey (FIH, 2009), there is no limitation regarding the maximum ball height when the first shot to score a goal is a push or a drag-flick. Some researchers have focused on strike techniques in field hockey but only two of them have analysed the drag-flick aiming to analyse kinematic parameters in relation to the level of experience of the players.

The drag-flick should follow the biomechanical pattern of throwing and hitting skills which aim to maximize the speed of the free end (distal) segment at release. In these skills, consecutive segments reach their maximum speed in series beginning with those furthest from the free end of the kinetic chain noted that consecutive segmental rotations of the pelvis, upper trunk, and stick occurred in the drag-flick. For the push-in, found that the movement pattern is a combination of sequential and simultaneous segment rotations. Moreover, the major contribution to the ball speed during the drag-flick and the push-in were: the stance width, the distance between the front foot and the ball at the beginning of the double foot contact, and the angular velocities of the pelvis and upper trunk at ball release. However, there is a paucity of research on the kinematics of the pelvis, upper trunk, and stick in the penalty-corner drag-flick and no analytical study of the drag-flick techniques of female or elite hockey players of international caliber has been carried out. The aim of this study, therefore, was to analyze the kinematic sequencing in the drag-flicks of elite field hockey players.

After a specific warm-up, 20 good trials at their natural speed were captured from each subject. If a participant did not place his/her front foot on the force platform, the trial was rejected. The ball was placed by the subject approximately 1.5 to 2 meters away from the center of the calibrated area. The drag-flick movement commenced once the front foot contacted the platform until 20 frames after the stick's peak positive angular velocity.

The ball velocity at release was obtained. The pelvis, upper trunk, and stick angles were calculated considering the line of the double foot contact as the _y-axis, the x-axis 90° from the  j;-axis to the right and the z-axis as the vertical axis (Figure 1). The angular velocities were computed from the angles formed by the trunk (shoulder line), pelvis (hip line), and stick with the x-axis on the xy plane. The knee flexion angle was computed for the front leg only.

The following key events of the drag-flick were identified: Tl (front foot contact), T2 (peak negative angular velocity of the stick), T3 (maximum angular velocity of the pelvis), T4 (maximum angular velocity of the upper trunk), T5 (ball release), and T6 (peak positive angular velocity of the stick). The event times were normalized to the T1-T6 time. The stance width, drag-flick distance, and the front foot-ball distance at Tl were obtained and normalized to player's height. The average velocity of the stick was also determined by dividing the drag-flick distance by the time from the double foot contact to T6. The component peaks (x, y, and z) of the ground reaction force were normalized to player's body weight.

The drag-flicker obtained higher peak angular velocities than both gender groups. These differences were significant in the peak negative angular velocity of the stick, and in the peak positive angular velocities of the pelvis and the stick. When comparing the positive peak angular velocity of the upper trunk rotation, the skilled drag-flicker showed significant differences with the female group but not with the male group. While both the male and female groups increased their positives peaks angular velocities from proximal to distal, the drag-flicker achieved higher angular velocity of the pelvis than the upper trunk.

The kinematic sequence of the peak angular velocities was similar between the skilled drag-flicker and the male group (T2-T3-T4-T5-T6 sequence), whereas the female group showed a different sequence (T3-T2-T4-T6-T5 sequence). Significant differences were observed in the normalized event times between the female group and the skilled drag-flicker at all events. The male group only showed a significant difference with the model drag-flicker at T4 (peak upper trunk angular velocity).

Stance width was shorter in the female group than in the skilled drag-flicker. The female group showed significant differences with the drag-flicker and with the male group in the normalized stance width. The normalized drag distance was significantly longer in the male group than in the skilled drag-flicker and in the female group. The normalized foot-ball distance at Tl was significantly smaller in the model drag-flicker than in the male group. The drag-flick velocity of the stick was significantly larger for the drag-flicker than male and female group. Knee flexion angle was significantly smaller for the drag-flicker and he also showed smaller angle change than both gender groups. The drag-flicker showed larger peak ground reaction forces in all components and the resultant than both gender groups.

The kinematic parameters studied highlighted the lower level of performance of the female group. The drag-flicker showed data that were similar to the male group but the differences with the female group were more evident.

The timing of the movement showed that after the double foot contact the drag-flicker and the male group followed a similar kinematic sequence while the female group's timing was different. As it was shown from the normalized event times, the female group produced their peak angular velocity of the pelvis earlier than the peak negative angular velocity of the stick. It is reasonable for the model drag-flicker and the male group to achieve the peak positive angular velocity of the stick after the ball release, as a result of the decreased action of the external torque at the end point of the stick, elimination of the friction, and decreased moment of inertia.

In order to enhance the dragging action the players moved the stick clockwise (backward) before the final acceleration (forward). This movement is known as the 'whipping action'. The whipping action of the stick is characteristics by the peak negative angular velocity of the stick. Both player groups showed smaller peak negative angular velocities of the stick than the skilled drag-flicker in this study.

The smaller (more flexed) knee angle values obtained in this study can be explained by the difference in the skill. Whereas the player maintains an upright position and uses a full backswing in the hit, the player must enhance the base of support and acquire a lower position of the centre of gravity to release the ball during a drag-flick in accordance to the official rules of the game. The skilled drag-flicker had less change in the front knee angle and registered significantly larger normalized ground reaction forces peaks than the player groups in this study.

In conclusion, the kinematic sequence of the drag-flick of field hockey players of international calibre. We have identified significant differences between the model drag flicker and both elite player groups in the peak negative and positive angular velocities of the stick, and in the peak angular velocity of the pelvis, and in the ground reaction force registered. From the inter-group comparisons, we conclude that the cues of the skill level area wide stance, a whipping action (rapid back lift) of the stick followed by an explosive sequential movement of the pelvis, upper trunk, and stick.

2.4 ROLES OF SPORT PEDAGOGY IN SPORT PERFORMANCE

To become a coaches before that they need educational background about sport. Coaches play a very important role in not only teaching the game, but also in building discipline, self-esteem, confidence and passion for a sport. Coaches can be some of the most important and influential role models in kids’ lives. Coaches teach the value of teamwork, discipline and sacrifice. Coaches also need to have ability to communicate sport specific content that was understandable and individualized. For example, a coach knows when, why and how to adopt a particular coaching method best suited to each athletes specific.

In order, to identify the knowledge and skills coaches need to develop, it is important to understand how their knowledge is used in the coaching process. As a coaches, they also need to learn from others to gain more knowledge about the sport. This property included information and skills coaches gained through observation and interactions with various sport related people. One key element included following with and observing other coaches, beginning with their youth and elite sport experiences.

3.0  CONCLUSION

Hockey is the sport that need player to gain knowledge before, during or after the game. This is because they can see improvement of their performance by game to game and take affective training to develop their motor skill that involve in hockey.it may take a longer time to master all the skill within 2 to 3 years.

In any type of sport will related to sport skill and also changes of human physiology. There are important things to know about the player and also the adaptation changes in the body after having some training. The body will adapt chronic changes within 2 or 3 times or adaptation within 6 to 8 weeks. 

Summarize journal on How to "PE" or "Physical Education Activities" Should Respond to discipline Arrival

            Journal titled How to "PE" or "Physical Education Activities" Should Respond to discipline Arrival written by Earle F. Zeigler at the University of Western Canada.

            Journal involves why the activities of physical educators in the public education system, a person who is simultaneously concerned also with the relevant health and safety education, do not worry about the fact that many colleges and universities gave the name "kinesiology" to administrative units related to them in the first training units they are located. This discussion is needed because of the confusion of unprecedented has happened since the question of "disciplinary status" of the field began to emerge about 60 years ago.

             The time came when human physical activity was considered less important in life. However, human physical activity in daily life was eventually degraded in modern society to such an extent that well-educated people often did not think that it had an important place in preparation for life. Some used physical activity vigorously, while others used it carefully and methodically. Early men and women knew human physical activity was important, but it was often not appreciated until it was gone, or almost gone. Human physical activity was used gracefully by some, ecstatically by others, rigorously by many when the need was urgent, and regularly by the vast majority who simply wanted to get the job done. Nevertheless, planned human physical-activity movements persisted despite the onset of an advancing technological age. Why should the physical activity educator within the public education system, a person who is also concurrently concerned also with related health and safety education, not worry about the fact that many colleges and universities are giving the name “kinesiology” to their related administrative units in which their first training unit is located? Human physical activity was called many things in various tongues. Historically, human physical activity has had a simultaneously glorious and shameful existence.

            The problem arises when people have always seemed to treat the physical educators as less bright than teachers of other subjects, though in their hearts admire physical skills. In addition, PE can rationalize that people sincerely just misjudged the importance of human physical activity. However, when the person who seems wise with lower physical skills themselves discussed PE, tend to curl their lips even though they may themselves be fat (or obese). In addition, they know that they themselves should remain the involvement of physical activity themselves. All of this "ancient history" made (PE) and physical (activity) education to be more worried than ever. Therefore, think about the proverbial rose, physical educators edge increasingly wondering if they would "smell as badly" by another name. Movement of people can look back on a long heritage going back to the time in the development of the universe when the creatures of the sea moved to the land mass. Time for reconsideration.

            They can understand, also, that the field has physiological aspects, anatomical aspects, psychological aspects, philosophical aspects, sociological aspects, historical aspects – and many more than could be counted on the fingers of two hands. Human physical movement can be understood when scientists and scholars realize that here is a name that is simple to pronounce, and people can understand it superficially at least. Our knowledge base comes from what might be called the movement arts and sciences or developmental physical activity, a field that can help humans throughout their entire lives. Perhaps the field’s true function can be understood more purposely than ever before using the term developmental physical activity. Or, if you will, broaden it to Kenyon’s term: “human movement arts and sciences. People can be helped to realize that there is more to “movement” than push-ups and jogging, as truly important as these physical activities might be. This would probably not be a good name for an academic department, but developmental physical activity might do well as disciplinary nomenclature for a departmental title in higher education. We are involved with human physical activity or movement. But if this road is to be traversed, it must be done by a determined, united group of qualified, professional physical activity educators under girded by a solid scholarly foundation.

            In my opinion, kinesiology has also become a convenient "umbrella" for a variety of more and more professional and perhaps oriented discipline to believe that it is a term that is appropriate for them to use as they work diligently to see that it may be used with either by people who really have the right to use it for their purposes. Perhaps, then, over and above the exercise of discipline, those involved and has passed a sufficient number of theoretical courses and practical which entitles him / her to be given a teaching certificate from the country or region where the services of professionals such as teachers would happen, he will start as by matriculating students in, and graduating, four-year university program in an accredited educational units are entitled to put the word "kinesiology" during or after graduation diploma. Kinesiology’s is also a director or coordinator of the program of physical activity and health education including intramural sports competitions included as a required subject in the school curriculum from kindergarten to grade 12 in upper secondary school curriculum.

            As conclusion, at this point in this discussion of how members of the field of physical activity and health education within the education profession should react to what has happened to the curriculum known as physical education that began in 1861 in America. If this were to happen, then perhaps people who serve the field of physical activity & related health education within the education profession could separate themselves from should be considered as ancillary coaching duties and responsibilities. In addition, these “kinesiologists” serving the field of education in this way should understand that their mission is to work as physical activity and health educators with ALL of the children in the schools. Further, and this really concerns me, I believe that physical activity & health educators should be “kinesiology graduates” in the sense that they should truly understand human movement technically (i. e. I wish it were possible to postulate that “all would live happily ever after both cinematically and kinetically) as well as, socially and philosophically.

Reference:

 Australian International Academic Centre, Australia 

http://www.journals.aiac.org.au/index.php/IJKSS/article/view/565